The Poem of Beowulf
At the roots of the fantasy literary genre lies epic poetry, which has populated the world with fantastic creatures, magic, great heroes, and extraordinary deeds since time immemorial. It’s not an exaggeration to consider the Epic of Gilgamesh the first fantastic literary work in history. Closer to the norms of contemporary Fantasy, which is profoundly influenced by a predominantly Anglo-Saxon tradition, is certainly Nordic epic literature, which developed following the barbarian invasions at the end of ancient times. Let’s briefly analyze one of the principal epic poems of Germanic tradition, Beowulf. This work, less known in our regions, is of great importance in the history of Anglo-Saxon and Nordic literature in general, studied in schools alongside Homer’s verses.
Origins
Like most epic poems, Beowulf originates from a rich corpus of legends, traditions, and popular myths passed down by wandering poets from time immemorial. These poets, similar to the Greek bards and rhapsodes, were known as scopas among the Germanic peoples and as skalds among the Scandinavians. The poem in its current version likely took shape around the 7th century AD, although the oldest manuscript narrating Beowulf’s exploits dates back to approximately the 10th century. However, the events described are set in an earlier period, likely between the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Interestingly, although the poem gained success in Anglo-Saxon England, it recounts the exploits of the Germanic tribes of the Geats and Danes. This unique feature is understandable, as the Anglo-Saxons were descendants of those tribes that had sailed across the North Sea to reach English shores. A more complex issue involves the presumed Christianity of the poem. Some critics suggest that the poem even allegorizes Redemption. Beowulf contains many biblical references despite its pre-Christian setting. This is likely because the author, like Homer, was the first to transform oral tradition into literature and was a fervent Christian who felt a need to reaffirm his faith even while narrating pagan myths and traditions. However, this is done with the utmost respect for Saxon culture; while there are no pagan deities mentioned, neither are Christ or God.
Plot
Beowulf spans a massive 3,200 lines and is one of the longest compositions of its time. In the prologue, the poem extols the glory of the Danish people, ancient inhabitants of the Danish island of Sjælland, and especially their kings, attributing their greatness to a mythical ancestor, Scyld Scefing, founder of the Scylding dynasty. Described as a child who arrived from the sea, Scyld was raised by the Danes and later proclaimed their king. Upon his death, after a reign of victories and heroic deeds, his body was placed on a ship and set adrift on the ocean. His descendants’ exploits are then described, leading to Hrothgar, who built a grand hall, Heorot, for celebrations and feasts. Unfortunately, a monstrous creature from a nearby swamp, Grendel of Cain's lineage, attracted by the noise of feasts, began to raid, killing and feasting on the dead. The hero Beowulf, a young prince from the allied Geats, comes to Hrothgar’s aid, setting a trap for Grendel by lying in wait at night. A fierce hand-to-hand fight ensues, with Grendel immune to weapons, but Beowulf overpowers him, ripping off his arm. Beowulf later finishes off the monster and returns to Heorot, where he is celebrated. Yet, his adventures are just beginning. After his return, news reaches him of Grendel's mother, a witch and demoness, seeking revenge. Beowulf hunts her down, diving into her lake where he finds and kills her with an ancient sword, returning victorious to Sweden.
Fifty years later, Beowulf, now an aged king, faces a dragon terrorizing his kingdom after a fugitive slave stole a golden cup from its hoard. Though mortally wounded, Beowulf manages to kill the dragon with the help of his loyal warrior, Wiglaf. Beowulf requests that his body be cremated on a funeral pyre, and the dragon's treasure is buried with him. The poem concludes with twelve warriors riding around his pyre, singing of his bravery and feats.
Style
The narrative structure of Beowulf may appear straightforward at first glance. In reality, it spans over three thousand lines and includes numerous digressions and rhetorical figures such as circumlocutions and, notably, alliteration. An example of digression appears after Beowulf defeats Grendel, where the court’s singers recount tales within the tale, like those of Siegmund (Nibelungslied) and Finnesburg, linking Beowulf to other Northern epic compositions and legends.
Themes
Beowulf is rich in themes that offer insights into Saxon society and its values. A central theme is the universal literary theme of a man’s defeat before his destiny. Beowulf fights battles, wins, and believes he has conquered for good; years later, he must face the same battle again, ultimately succumbing. Another intriguing aspect is the vision of nature as hostile, populated by dangerous creatures. The cycle of life is also fundamental, introduced in the prologue with the story of King Scyld, symbolizing a cycle of birth, growth, and death akin to nature. Beowulf’s victory over Grendel is symbolically interpreted as nature’s triumph over winter. His fight with Grendel’s mother hints at magical rites that survive in an agricultural society, and the final encounter with the dragon symbolizes death as a devourer of the sun and stars, with Beowulf’s death paralleling the end of summer. The funeral pyre, with its light and warmth, symbolizes rebirth.
Legacy of Beowulf
As the national epic of the Anglo-Saxon people, Beowulf is pivotal in English literature and one of the most significant epic texts studied. The saga has had a lasting impact, with its influence evident in later works, particularly in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, who admired the poem deeply and even wrote a preface for a modern English version. The Hobbit has parallels to Beowulf, such as the dragon’s lair scene and the funeral of Boromir. A 1999 film adaptation starring Christopher Lambert exemplifies Beowulf’s enduring place in English consciousness, as its cycle of life continues.
