Hadrian: A Roman emperor against Rome?
Hadrian (76-138 AD) owes his career to Plotina, Matidia and Marciana (Trajan's wife, niece and sister respectively). His relationship with his wife Vibia Sabina was very difficult, but it is not surprising given the obvious homosexuality of the emperor, who on the occasion of the death of his Antinous gave way to feminine laments.
He had difficult relations with the senators. Some he had killed, others he tried to buy with money. After his death the Senate wanted to annul all his acts and for a long time refused to honors the remains of the deceased.
Hadrian had excellent relations with the army. He paid well and gave rewards, but rarely made soldiers fight except to defend the empire. He did not wage any war on his own initiative and, having become emperor, did not directly participate in any military action.
He got along very well with the barbarians. He tried to resolve all disputes either by buying them with money or by giving them large areas of the empire.
He also wanted to buy the citizens of Rome with money, food and games. But he preferred to live far from Rome. Either he was traveling or he was retreating to his villa on the Via Tiburtina, away from nobles and commoners. Maybe he didn't trust them. He left his imposing mausoleum in Rome, which in the Middle Ages was transformed into Castel S. Angelo.
He didn't learn Latin well and when he grew up he had to go to elocution school.
He loved Greece and its customs very much, even the worst.
He uselessly provoked the Jews who rebelled and resisted the Roman legions for some years.
He killed many of his friends, suspecting them of treason.
He appointed as his successor to the imperial throne a good-looking and very charming young man, devoid of any civil or military knowledge and experience, known only for his debauchery. He perhaps the heir of the handsome Antinous. Fortunately, the young man's premature death saved the empire from ruin.
Having to choose another successor, he opted for the fifty-year-old Antoninus, a noble and pious senator, with the clause that the empire would pass to the son of his last, interrupted passion.
The origins
Publius Aelius Hadrian was born on 24 January 76 AD. in Rome, as reported in the Historia Augusta, or in Italica, a town in Baetica, in southern Spain, where the family lived.
His father was Publius Elius Hadrian "Afer", i.e. "African" in reference to some expeditions conducted in North Africa. His paternal grandfather had been a senator of Rome and had married Ulpia, Trajan's aunt. The family was originally from Piceno and had moved to Spain at the time of the Scipios, about three centuries earlier.
His mother was Domitia Pauline of Gades, now Cadiz.
Hadrian was welcomed into Trajan's family and was taken to Rome to continue his studies.
He had particular interest in Greek literature and traditions.
The carreer
At fifteen he was sent to Spain to be started on a military career, but due to his debauchery and poor performance he was immediately recalled to Rome by Trajan.
Hadrian, in 93, at the age of 17, became decemvir litibus iudicandis, i.e. magistrate in charge of minor legal disputes.
Immediately afterwards he entered the army with the rank of tribunus of the Legion II Adjutrix, located in Pannonia.
In 96 he was tribunus militum of the V Macedonian Legion located in Moesia Inferior, on the lower course of the Danube in an area corresponding to today's Bulgaria.
In 97 he became tribune of the XXII Legion in Germania Superior, at that time governed by Trajan.
In 100, at the age of 24, he married Vibia Sabina, daughter of Matidia Augusta, daughter of Ulpia Marciana, sister of Trajan. The bride's father was Lucius Vibius Sabinus. The marriage was favored by Pompea Plotina, Trajan's wife, but was opposed by Trajan himself.
In 101 Hadrian became quaestor. He then held the position of redactor actorum senatus, that is, responsible for drafting the minutes of the Senate. But he only held the position for a few months because he had to accompany Trajan in the first war for the conquest of the Dacia (101-102).
In 105 he was appointed tribune of the plebs.
In the second Dacian war (105-106) he had command of the Legion I Minervica.
In 107 Hadrian became praetor and was sent as legatus praetorius, or governor, to Lower Pannonia to fight the Sarmatians.
In 108, at the age of 32, he became consul.
In 114, with the support of Plotina, he managed to obtain the position of governor of Syria. Syria was the operational base of Trajan's expedition to the land of the Parthians (today's Iraq and Iran).
In 117, again thanks to the intervention of Plotina, he obtained the position of consul for the second time. The office was to be exercised in 118.
The succession
On 9 August 117 Hadrian, who, as governor of Syria, resided in Antioch, received the letter communicating his adoption by Trajan. It was about the appointment as his successor.
On August 11 he received the news of Trajan's death. Hadrian, at the age of 42, became emperor.
The strange fact is that Trajan died on 7 or 8 August in Selinus (Selinunte of Cilicia, today Selindi or Gazipasa in Turkey), where he had had to stop due to a sudden illness that had struck him while sailing to return to Italy. It is said that Plotina and Attianus, Hadrian's former guardian, hid Trajan's death for a few days and arranged Hadrian's false adoption with a macabre staging.
The army acclaimed Hadrian as the new emperor and received a donation double that which Trajan had granted at the time of his appointment.
Hadrian sent a letter to the Roman Senate in which he declared that he could only follow the will of the army that had appointed him emperor. The Senate understood the message, granted honors to Trajan and decreed the triumph for the victory over the Parthians. But Hadrian refused this honor. He was in fact about to return the lands that Trajan had conquered to the Parthians.
Abandonment of the lands conquered by Trajan
Hadrian had not achieved great victories, like many of Trajan's generals, and had made his political and military career in the shadow of the women of the imperial court, making the most of his relationship with the emperor.
As soon as he got the power he repudiated Trajan's foreign policy. His first act was to renounce all the conquests made by Trajan beyond the Euphrates, abandoning Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria. He only retained Arabia Petrea, between Egypt, Judea, Syria, and the Red Sea, because it was useful for commercial purposes.
In 85 his father died and Hadrian, at the age of ten, was entrusted to two guardians: Publius Acilius Attianus, belonging to the rank of knight, and Ulpius Trajan, praetor.
Hadrian would have also wanted to get rid of Dacia, returning it to the barbarians, but he was only held back by the fact that numerous Roman colonists had settled in those lands and would certainly have been exterminated if the legions had retreated.
Hadrian marks a turning point in the history of Rome. The era of conquests ends. The Empire will no longer aspire to expand from now on.
Agreement with the Rossolani
After the cession of the territories to the Parthians, Hadrian appointed Lucius Catilius Severus as legate for Syria and began the return journey to Italy. But more than a year passed before he entered Rome because before him he undertook a political and military operation against the Rossolani. These barbarians intended to invade the provinces of Moesia and Dacia. Hadrian ensured a generous salary for Rasparasano, king of the Rossolani, and there was no need for any battle.
The Jewish revolt of 115-117
The Jews lived not only in Palestine, but also in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Cyrenaica and the island of Cyprus. In 115 they rebelled, taking advantage of the fact that the Romans were busy with the Parthians.
The revolt started from Cyrenaica and quickly spread to Egypt and Cyprus. It is said that 240,000 Romans and Greeks were massacred by the rebels.
In Cyrene, the Caesareum, the Basilica and the Baths, the temples of Hecate and Jupiter, and probably also those of Apollo, Isis and Artemis were demolished. The Roman and Greek population was exterminated. Then the Jewish army, led by a leader named Lucua or Andrew, headed towards Egypt.
The Roman troops stationed in Egypt, commanded by General Lupo, had to retreat from Alexandria which was set on fire. Trajan sent other troops led by Marcius Turbo, who regained control of Egypt and Cyrenaica only in the autumn of 117.
In Cyprus the Jews, under the command of Artemion, had taken over almost the entire island and had destroyed the city of Salamis, exterminating its inhabitants. The Roman army regained control of the island. From then on, the landing in Cyprus of any Jew was prohibited, under penalty of death.
In Mesopotamia the Jewish revolt broke out during the Parthian War. Trajan had just returned victorious from the Persian Gulf when the insurrection broke out. He had to reconquer Nisibis (Nusaybin in Turkey), Edessa (Urfa in Turkey), capital of Osroene, and Seleukeia (Seleucia on the Tigris, in Iraq), all seats of ancient and important Jewish communities. Lusio Quieto, a brave Moorish commander, had the task of repressing the revolt.
After having pacified Mesopotamia Quietus moved to Palestine, but Hadrian, having become emperor, took away from him the legation of Judea and the command of the Roman and Maurian troops. He called him back to Rome and accused him of having aspired to the throne.
To restore order in Judea, Hadrian was forced to permanently station the VI Ferrata Legion there.
Hadrians put senators to death
Hadrian appointed Attianus, his former guardian, and Similis as praetorian prefects. While awaiting his arrival he sent them to Rome to take control of the capital.
Gaius Calpurnius Crassus, accused by Attian, was put to death.
Four consulars were put to death without trial:
- Lusio Quieto, the general who had tamed Mesopotamia, was killed while traveling.
- Cornelio Palma, the conqueror of Arabia, was put to death in Terracina.
- Publilius Celsus was killed in Baiae.
- Ovid Nigrinus, proconsul of Achaia, was killed in Faenza.
During Trajan's reign only one senator had been sentenced to death and Trajan had not known it.
Hadrian began his reign in terror. To regain credit with the senators he placed the blame on Attianus who was removed from the post of praetorian prefect. Attianus, of equestrian rank, was rewarded with consular rank and senatorial dignity.
General Marcio Turbone was appointed as the new praetorian prefect.
Similis, of the Sulpicii family, was also discharged. He was replaced by Septicio Claro.
Gifts to the people
Hadrian arrived in Rome in July 118.
Before entering he had made the citizens give away three gold coins, equivalent to 75 days' pay for a worker.
On the occasion of his entry he distributed food.
He forgave all debts for unpaid taxes.
He completely forgave the tribute tax to the new emperor (aureum coronarium) for Italy and partly for the Provinces.
On January 24, 119, his birthday, he gave a great gladiator show and made further donations to the people.
Gifts to senators
Hadrian took steps to replenish the assets of those senators who no longer had wealth equal to their rank.
He prohibited the knights from handling trials involving senators.
Hadrian's Travels
Starting from 121, Hadrian's travels began essentially aimed at checking the state of the army, but not putting it under arms. The paid soldiers, but exempted from waging war, were very devoted to Hadrian. The soldiers were assigned to civilian tasks: raising horses and livestock, building fortifications, escorting grain wagons, etc.
Hadrians in Gaul
In 121 Hadrian went to Gaul, which was then divided into four provinces: Narbonensis, administered by the Senate, Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica governed by praetorian legates of the emperor.
Lugdunum (Lyon) was the capital of the imperial provinces. Other important cities were Narbo Martius (Narbonne), Nemausus (Nimes), Arelate (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), Toulouse, Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier, Trier, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany).
In Germany
From Gaul Hadrian went to Germany, divided into two provinces: Germania superior and Germania inferior. Both were governed by consular legates.
Lower Germany
The Inferior, whose territory extended to the mouth of the Rhine, had as its capital Colonia Agrippinensium (Köln, Cologne, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany) where the legate resided. Other important cities were Deuso (Deutz), Novaesium (Neuss, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany), Noviomagus (Nijmegen, Nijmegen, in the Netherlands), Bonna (Castra Bonnensia, Bonn, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany), Vetera ( Xanten, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany).
Two legions resided in Germania Inferior: the I Minervia in Bonn and the XXX Ulpia in Xanten.
Germany Superior
Maguntiacum (Mainz, Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) was the capital of Superior. Other important cities were Argentoratum (Strassburg, Strasbourg, in Alsace, Germany), Speyer (Speier, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany), Borbetomagus (Civitas Vangionum, Worms, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany), Augusta Rauracorum (Basel in Switzerland) , Vindonissa (Windisch, Switzerland).
Two legions resided in Upper Germany: the VIII Augusta in Strasbourg and the XXII Primigenia in Mainz.
Agrii Decumates
The Agri Decumates extended between the source of the Rhine and the Danube, where numerous Roman colonies had been established. A series of fortifications defended the border from Kehlheim on the Danube to the mouth of the Lahn on the Rhine.
In Rhaetia, Noricum and Pannonia
Hadrian probably also visited Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia, which had the Danube as their border.
Rezia
In Rhaetia at the time of Hadrian there were no legions, Marcus Aurelius will bring the III Italica to Castra Regina (Regensburg, Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany).
Important city was Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg, Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany).
Noriker
In Noricum at the time of Hadrian there were no legions, Marcus Aurelius will bring the II Italica to Lauriacum (Enns, Austria).
Pannonia
Trajan had divided Pannonia into Upper and Lower.
In Upper Pannonia there were three fortresses: Vindobona (Vienna, Austria), where the X Gemina Legion resided, Carnuntum (Altenburg in Thuringia, Germany) where the XIV Gemina was located and Brigetium, where the I Adiutrix was.
In Lower Pannonia there was only one legion, the II Adiutrix, in Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary).
In Britain
After visiting the Rhine front, Hadrian headed for Britain. The capital in Trajan's time was Eboracum (York). Important centers were Camulodunum (Colchester) and Londinium (London). Forts had been built at Glevum (Gloucester) and Lindum (Lincoln).
There were 3 legions in Britain: the II Augusta in Isca Silurum (Caerlon), the VI Victrix in Eboracum (York), the XX Valeria Victrix in Deva (Chester).
Hadrian, starting in 122, began the construction of a three and a half meter high wall, accompanied by a ditch and embankments, 118 kilometers long between Segedunum (Wallsend) on the River Tyne to the east and Bowness on the Gulf of Solway to the west. The Vallum Hadriani was the border between the area controlled by the Romans and Caledonia, today's Scotland. The work was built by the Legion II with the participation of the VI Victrix and the XX Valeria.
The wall had watchtowers every 500 metres, gates every 1,600 metres, and forts every 10 kilometres.
Hadrian decided to build the wall after abandoning the boundary line that Gnaeus Julius Agricola had established in the 1st century between the estuaries of the rivers Forth to the east and Clyde to the west, in a line that went roughly from Edinburgh to Glasgow. It will be Antoninus Pius who will bring the legions back to the border established by Agricola and build a new 60 kilometer long wall.
While he was in Britain Hadrian carried out a purge among his collaborators accused of having had too close relationships with his wife Sabina. Among other things, Septicius Claro, praetorian prefect, and Suetonius, imperial secretary, were removed.
Return to Gaul
Returning from Britain, Hadrian passed through Gaul and in Nemausus (Nîmes) he built a temple in honor of Augusta Plotina, Trajan's wife.
In Spain
In 122-123 Hadrian went to Spain, which was then divided into Hispania citerior, with its capital in Tarraco (Tarragona, in Catalonia, Spain), Hispania ulterior or Baetica, with its capital in Cordoba (in Andalusia, Spain), and Lusitania (Portugal), with capital Augusta Emerita (Merida, in Extremadura, Spain).
The Legion VII Gemina controlled the entire territory.
Seneca, Lucan, Martial, Columella and Quintilian as well as the emperors Trajan and Hadrian were originally from Spain. In the 4th century another emperor, Theodosius the Great, will come from Spain.
In Mauretania
In 123 Hadrian passed into Mauretania, which was divided into Tingitana (Morocco) and Caesarensis (western Algeria), then returned to Rome.
The capital of Caesarensis was Caesarea (formerly Iol, now Cherchel), and that of Tingitana with its capital Tingis (Tangier, in Arabic Tanjah). An important city in the Tingitana was Volubilis (in Arabic Oulili, Walila, or Walili).
First travel to the East
In 123 Hadrian visited the province of Asia, which included Mysia, Lydia, Phrygia, Caria, Pamphylia, Pisidia and Lycaonia. The seat of the proconsul was Ephesus (Ephesus, near Selçuk).
Then he went to Cappadocia, Galatia, Bythinia, Pontus and reached the city of Trabezous (Trebizond, Trabezunte, in Turkish Trabzon) on the Black Sea. He arrived at the border with Armenia and the Parthian kingdom. The border was protected by the XII Fulminata Legion located in Melitene (Eski Malatya, in Turkey) on the Euphrates, by the XVI Flavia Firma located in Samosata (Samsat in Turkey) or Satala (in Turkey) and by the XV Apollinaris stationed in Armenia Minor.
He returned his daughter, whom Trajan had managed to capture, to Chosroes, king of the Parthians. He organized a conference with the barbarian princes to whom he granted rich donations.
In 124 he reached Novum Ilium, convinced that it was ancient Troy. Then he went to Samothrace and finally to Macedonia. He arrived in Athens in the autumn of 124 and remained there for about a year. He visited many cities of the province of Achaia. He was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries.
On his way back to Italy he passed through Sicily and climbed Mount Etna.
Towards the end of 125 he arrived in Rome, where he introduced many Greek customs, including the Eleusinian festivals.
In Africa
In the summer of 128, Hadrian reached the province of Africa (Tunisia and Libya) and Numidia (eastern Algeria). It was governed by a proconsul. The III Augusta Legion commanded by an imperial legate was stationed there. The capital of Africa was Carthago (Carthage, near Tunis). The capital of Numidia was Cirta (Constantina, Qacentina, in Arabic Blad El-Hawa).
Second travel to the East
Returning to Rome, he remained there for a short time because at the end of 128 or the beginning of 129 he undertook his second journey to the East. He was in Athens and Eleusis. At the end of 129 he passed to Ephesus (Ephesus, near Selçuk in Turkey) and Smyrna (Izmir in Turkey). In 130 he reached Syria and stopped in the capital Antiocheia (Antioch, Antakya, in Turkey not far from the border with Syria). Then he went to Judea where the Legion X Fretensis was stationed as well as the VI Ferrata.
From Judea Hadrian passed into Arabia Petrea, which had been conquered by Cornelio Palma. The capital was Bostra (Busra Ash-sham in Syria). Another important city was Petra (Batra, in Jordan), home of the Legion III Cyrenaica.
Then Hadrian took the road to Egypt, probably passing through Pelusium, and reached Alexandria, the capital.
Egypt was ruled by a prefect of the emperor. No senator could enter it.
Two legions resided there: the XXII Deioratana and the II Traiana.
In the autumn of 130 Hadrian visited Memphis and undertook a journey on the Nile with his wife Sabina and his favorite Antinous. On the left bank of the Nile, opposite Hermopolis (Al-ashmunayn), Antinous drowned. Hadrian built a city there called Antinoe.
The imperial party then headed to Thebes (November 130) and finally returned to Alexandria.
At the end of 131 or the beginning of 132 Hadrian reached Syria, perhaps recalled by the Jewish rebellion.
The Jewish revolt of 132-135
Hadrian assimilated circumcision to castration, which had already been prohibited by Domitian. The ban on circumcision was not accepted by the Jews for religious reasons.
Hadrian developed the plan to build a new city, Aelia Capitolina, on the ruins of Jerusalem and to build a temple dedicated to Capitoline Jupiter. Hadrian's intention was considered sacrilege by the Jews.
Hadrian's two measures were not directed against the Jewish religion, but showed little respect for traditions foreign to the Greek and Roman world.
In 132 an insurrection broke out in Palestine, led by Simone bar Kosiba. Governor Tineius Rufus received reinforcements from the imperial legate of Syria, Gnaeus Publicius Marcellus. The Roman troops were brought up to four legions, as well as individual departments of other legions and numerous auxiliary cohorts.
Hadrian, given the continuation of the situation, decided to have Sextus Julius Severus, an excellent general and then governor of Britain, intervene. Julius Severus managed to defeat Simon at the stronghold of Bether, near Jerusalem, in 135, ending the revolt.
In 136 or 137 Aelia Capitolina was inaugurated under the protection of the X Fretense, while the VI Ferrata controlled the rest of Judea.
Hadrian expelled the Jews from Aelia Capitolina, which was populated by colonists. The city was rebuilt magnificently.
Antoninus Pius lifted the ban on circumcision. Constantine allowed the Jews to return to Aelia Capitolina only once a year, on the anniversary of the destruction of the temple by Titus, to pray on the site of the sanctuary.
The attack of the Great Danes
In May 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. Shortly afterwards news arrived that the Alans had attacked Cappadocia and Armenia. The legate of Cappadocia was Flavius Arrian. Xenophon was appointed supreme commander. The XII and XV Legions participated in the war, the latter commanded by Valens. The Alans were easily repelled.
The succession
In May 136 Sabina died, perhaps poisoned. Hadrian had no children.
Successor was designated Lucius Commodus Verus, son-in-law of Ovid Nigrinus, the senator killed by Hadrian at the beginning of his reign. Lucius received the name Lucius Aelius Caesar.
Lucius Elius Caesar, son of Ceionius Commodus, had been praetor in 130. On 5 December 130 he had a son, Lucius Elius Aurelius Commodus, by his wife Domitia Lucilla.
Lucius Elius Caesar was of rare beauty and charm. He too had participated in the Nile journey, perhaps as a substitute for Antinous. Lucius Aelius Caesar was known in Rome for his debauchery.
The choice was contested. Adriano, 60, reacted by sending his brother-in-law Serviano, 90, and his nephew Fusco, 17, to their deaths. The imperial secret police went into action and many suffered the consequences. No distinction was made between friends and enemies. Everyone became suspect.
In 137 Lucius Elius Caesar received the consulate and tribunician power. Before the end of the year Hadrian entrusted him with control of the Empire and retreated to his villa on the Tiburtina. But on January 1, 138, Lucius Elius Caesar suddenly died of a serious illness.
Hadrian then adopted Aurelius Antoninus, a senator from the Aurelia family originally from Nîmes in Gaul. Antonino was 51 years old. He had married Annia Galeria Faustina Maggiore. Anna was the daughter of the prefect Marco Annio Vero. His sons had died early. He had two daughters, one of whom was called Annia Galeria Faustina Minore, who married Marcus Aurelius.
Hadrian imposed on Antoninus the condition of adopting in turn as successors:
- Lucius Ceionius Commodus, 7 years old, the son of Lucius Elius Caesar. Lucius Ceionus Commodus will become emperor with the name of Lucius Verus.
- Marco Annio Vero, 16 years old, son of the praetor Marco Annio Vero and Domizia Faustilla. Faustina Maggiore was the sister of Marco Annio Vero, father of the adoptee. Marcus Annius Verus will become emperor with the name of Marcus Aurelius.
On 25 February 138 Antoninus was officially adopted.
The death
On 10 July 138 Hadrian died in Baiae. He was 62 years old. He had reigned for 21 years.
The Senate refused to honor the ashes of its persecutor. It was only after some time that Antoninus managed to bring Hadrian's remains to Rome and place them in his mausoleum.
