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CLASSIFICATION, THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES, AND TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

CLASSIFICATION, THE CONCEPT OF SPECIES, AND TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

Since ancient times, scholars have sought to bring order to the diversity of living forms by grouping them based on specific criteria, enabling them to distinguish one form from another. This activity gave rise to the science of organism classification, known as taxonomy. A primary division of organisms can be made based on the type of cells that make up their bodies: this allows us to distinguish Prokaryotes from Eukaryotes . The former consist of primitive cells lacking a nucleus, while the latter are made up of cells equipped with a nucleus containing hereditary material, separated from the rest of the cell by a nuclear membrane. Anoth...

Dynamics of Life: Reproduction, Interaction, and Adaptation in Living Organisms

Dynamics of Life: Reproduction, Interaction, and Adaptation in Living Organisms

Greeks were the first to investigate the origin and nature of life in a scientific way. The philosopher Aristotle distinguished living beings endowed with a "soul" from non-living objects lacking a soul and therefore "inanimate." Aristotle also proposed the existence of three different types of soul: a "vegetative" soul possessed by plants, an "animal" soul possessed by animals, and a "rational" soul unique to humans, making them different and superior to all other animals. For many centuries, this theory dominated, although numerous and often conflicting hypotheses were formulated about the "something extra" that living beings possess co...

Some insects have completely changed color due to human presence

The New Zealand stonefly changes color to adapt to deforestation: a surprising example of rapid evolution induced by humans.

Some insects have completely changed color due to human presence

In New Zealand, a small insect has demonstrated its incredible ability to adapt in the face of human-induced changes to its natural habitat. The long-tailed stonefly ( Zelandoperla ), once specialized in mimicking a toxic counterpart to avoid predators, has changed its color in deforested areas. This change is a fascinating example of rapid evolution driven by human activity. The Art of Imitation In its original environment, Zelandoperla developed an ingenious survival strategy: mimicking the appearance of the toxic stonefly Austroperla , an insect that produces cyanide to deter predators. This disguise allowed Zelandoperla to go unnotice...

Geological Implications of an Expanding Earth (part 2)

· 2 months ago

Figure 53 Permian virtual geomagnetic pole positions used by Cox & Doell (1961) to determine the

Cox & Doell (1961a) further considered that, if contemporaneous palaeomagnetic data from two localities on the same stable continental block have different inclinations I 1 and I 2 ( Figure 52 ) so that the two localities are on different circles of geomagnetic latitude, and if the ancient geomagnetic field was dipolar, then the ancient Earth radius R a may be found from: R_a = d/(cot^{-1} (½tanI_1) - cot^{-1} (½tanI_2)) Where d is the linear length of the great circle arc connecting the two sampling sites (Hospers & van Andel, 1967; van Andel & Hospers, 1968a). Cox & Doell (1961a) used this method to evaluate the Earth...

Geological Implications of an Expanding Earth (part 1)

· 2 months ago

Figure 34 Van Hilton’s (1963) orange peal effect model for Earth expansion. Van Hilton suggested tha

Contents Relief of Surface Curvature Orogenesis Hydrosphere and Atmosphere Accumulation Palaeomagnetism Application of Palaeomagnetic Data The "Dipole Equation" Determination of Pole Position Hypothetical Palaeomagnetic Pole Simulations Estimation of Palaeoradius Using Palaeomagnetism Discussion Geological Implications of an Expanding Earth the fit of the continents on a smaller Earth appeared to be too good to be due to coincidence and requires explaining (Creer 1965) Acceptance of the theory of Earth expansion was envisaged by researchers, such as McElhinny et al (1978) and Schmidt & Clark (1980), to be thwarted by major obstacles ...

Global expansion tectonics: Quantitative Modeling

· 2 months ago

Figure 23 Early Cretaceous Plate Tectonic reconstructions. (Reconstructions after Scotese et al, 198

Contents Methodology Development of Oceanic Basins Arctic Ocean Atlantic Ocean North Atlantic South Atlantic Caribbean Mediterranean Sea Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Southeast Asian Basins Southwest Pacific Discussion Quantitative Modeling it is difficult to believe that chance alone can explain this fitting together of the continental margins , (Barnett, 1962) To test Global Expansion Tectonics and, in particular, the mathematical parameters developed from empirical sea floor magnetic isochron data, spherical small Earth models for chron intervals corresponding to chron C0 (Present), C3A (Pliocene), C6B (Miocene), C15 (Oligocene), C25 (Eo...

Global expansion tectonics: Earth Dynamics

· 2 months ago

Figure 15 depicts the Earths lithospheric budget for the past 205 million years, showing accountable

Contents Lithospheric Budget Extrapolation to the Pre-Jurassic Determination of Palaeoradius Cause of Earth Expansion Kinematics of Earth Expansion Radius, Circumference, Surface Area and Volume Mass, Density and Surface Gravity Secular Rate of Earth Expansion Discussion Earth Dynamics I have been continually amazed that the simplicity with which Earth expansion answers so much of the Earth's evolution has been so delayed in universal adoption (Vogel, 1983). When Hilgenberg (1933) fitted the continental crust onto a small Earth globe he operated within the outlines of the continents and continental shelves known at the time. Vogel (1...

Global expansion tectonics: Introduction

· 2 months ago

Figure 1. Selected spherical rates for lines crossing the Pacific Ocean showing average, annual disp

Contents Introduction To Earth Expansion Empirical Small Earth Modeling: a Brief History Preliminary Discussion Preface Global tectonics was introduced a number of decades ago as an all embracing science that seeks to quantify and explain the Earth as a dynamic, interactive entity. As an outcome of this new philosophy we, in all our walks of life, have become accustomed to viewing the Earth globally, be it geology, ecology, climate, population, politics, and so on. Global tectonics however, in its strictest sense, must go beyond the present, or near present, i.e. human scale, and include the geological past, dating back to the formation ...

Global expansion tectonics

Exponential Earth Expansion from the Pre-Jurassic to the Present

· 2 months ago

Global expansion tectonics

by James Maxlow Table of Contents Global expansion tectonics Earth dynamics Quantitative modeling Geological implications Summary and conclusions Welcome It is unfortunate that the concept of " plate tectonics " is now so firmly entrenched in our scientific community that geoscientists, teachers, and students are blinded to all new developments in global tectonics. This article is presented as a reminder that, strictly speaking, all is not well with plate tectonics. The primary aim of this article is to demonstrate to you that, utilizing modern geological and geophysical data to globally constrain the spatial and temporal plate motion his...

Indelible signs of human activity on Earth: kilometers and kilometers of holes

Human activity has so profoundly altered the face of the planet that geologists believe the era we are living in can be called the 'Anthropocene'. Among the most disfiguring and indelible operations, the digging of holes in the Earth's crust, kilometers deep.

· 2 months ago

Indelible signs of human activity on Earth: kilometers and kilometers of holes

It is estimated that humans have altered over half of the planet's surface. These changes are easy to notice: mountains are excavated, forests are reduced, and an increasing number of living species are becoming extinct. The changes are so dramatic for the planet that some geologists have named this phase of the Earth's geological timeline the 'Anthropocene'. This concerns human activities on the surface. But what signs are we leaving in the depths of the subsurface? It is believed that human activity beneath the surface is causing a continuous change of the Earth: a sprawling network of holes made for mining, energy, or e...

Traces of Ancient River That Once Dominated Antarctica 34 Million Years Ago

Scientists have discovered that a river similar in size to the Rio Grande once dominated West Antarctica, offering a rare glimpse of the continent's land mass that is now covered in ice.

· 3 months ago

Traces of Ancient River That Once Dominated Antarctica 34 Million Years Ago

It is believed that the river flowed about 44-34 million years ago, just before the thick ice sheets of the continent began to form. At that time, after the dinosaurs and long before human life, Antarctica had a mild climate and likely hosted giant penguins. This implies that at that time, West Antarctica was above sea level as before West Antarctica was covered by ice, it was dominated by a large river system, had a temperate climate (with surface water temperatures of about 19°C in summer), and a swampy environment. The river presumably meandered through a vast coastal plain with marshy wetlands along its banks. The river was discovered...

Discovery of the lungfish Ferganoceratodus edwardsi

Fossil hunter Steve Edwards discovers and names new species of lungfish, Ferganoceratodus edwardsi, contributing to paleontology and understanding of evolution.

· 4 months ago

Discovery of the lungfish Ferganoceratodus edwardsi

Fossil hunter Steve Edwards has recently been awarded the most prestigious recognition among nature enthusiasts: a new species of lungfish has been named in his honor. In addition to being a safari guide in northern Zimbabwe, Edwards made an extraordinary discovery: a fossil of a curious fish that lived about 210 million years ago, at the time when dinosaurs were beginning to appear. The fossil belongs to a new species of lungfish, named Ferganoceratodus edwardsi in honor of Edwards's contributions to paleontology. This discovery adds to his previous ones, which include a phytosaur and a new dinosaur in his repertoire of fossil discov...

Mummified Woolly Rhinoceros Discovered in Siberia

Mummified remains of woolly rhinoceros with intact soft parts have been discovered in Siberia, opening new scientific perspectives on the last ice age.

· 4 months ago

The horn of the woolly rhinoceros.

The mummified remains of an extinct woolly rhinoceros have been discovered in Siberia, frozen like a piece of meat for thousands of years. The prehistoric animal still has its soft tissues intact, opening up intriguing scientific possibilities. The discovery was made recently at a mining site in the Oymyakonsky district of the Republic of Sakha, in the Russian Far East, as reported by the Northeastern Federal University (NEFU, https://www.s-vfu.ru/news/detail.php?SECTION_ID=25&ELEMENT_ID=244877). Researchers from NEFU returned from the site with the horn of the extinct beast, noting that the rest of the carcass will be...

New study refutes leading theory of continent formation

In the new study, Dr. David Hernández Uribe of the University of Illinois at Chicago used computer models to study the formation of magmas that are thought to hold clues to the origin of Earth's continents

· 4 months ago

New study refutes leading theory of continent formation

Magma is a molten substance that, upon cooling, forms rocks and minerals. Dr. Hernández Uribe has sought magmas that match the compositional signature of rare mineral deposits called zircons, dating back to the Archean eon (from 2.5 to 4 billion years ago), a time when scientists believed the first continents were formed. In a recent study (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01489-z), researchers argued that Archean zircons could only form through subduction, i.e., when two tectonic plates collide underwater, pushing the landmass to the surface. This process still occurs today, causing earthquakes and volcanic erup...

Life tried to establish itself on Earth 1.5 billion years earlier than expected

A new analysis of marine sedimentary rocks reveals evidence of ancient complex life, suggesting that the history of evolution on Earth may be much older than previously thought.

· 4 months ago

Life tried to establish itself on Earth 1.5 billion years earlier than expected

There is still a scientific debate about when exactly complex life forms first appeared on Earth, and the most recent research suggests that previous estimates should be reconsidered, by about 1.5 billion years. The new theory is based on an analysis of marine sedimentary rocks in the Franceville Basin, near the west coast of Africa, deposited around 2.1 billion years ago. The general consensus has been that animals first appeared around 635 million years ago. Now, an international group of scientists has discovered that rock samples indicate an increase in phosphorus and oxygen in seawater, which has previously been linked to rapid advan...

Secrets of the Jurassic: Primitive mammals with incredible longevity discovered

Ancient mammals, which lived in the Middle Jurassic and weighed less than 100 grams as adults, appear to have followed a slower and more prolonged growth path than modern one.

· 4 months ago

Secrets of the Jurassic: Primitive mammals with incredible longevity discovered

According to a recent research published in Nature, primitive mammals may have lived longer than their modern descendants of similar body mass. This discovery, based on the analysis of fossils found in Scotland dating back to the Middle Jurassic (about 166 million years ago), offers new insights into the development and lifespan of early mammals. Growth and Longevity of Mammals Understanding the growth and longevity of mammals has always been one of the most fascinating challenges for paleontologists and evolutionary scholars. Modern mammals, as we know, follow a developmental pattern that has been well-documented through extensive studie...

The third eye of the reptiles

· 5 months ago

The fossilised skull of an Odontocyclops displays its pineal foramen. Nkansahrexford (Own work) via

French philosopher René Descartes believed that the pineal gland, a tiny button of neurons located in the depth of our brain, was the seat of the soul. Today, thanks to palaeontology, genetic and developmental studies, we know that it is actually the evolutionary relic of a long-vanished organ, the third eye. This is also known as the pineal eye and is a receptor located on the top of the head. Many existing reptiles such as monitor lizards, some iguanas and the tuatara still have a pineal eye. All reptiles that still have the pineal eye today are “cold blooded”; they have what’s known as an ectotherm metabolism. Modern mammals – which of...

Dinosaur Fossils: Some Definitions 

· 5 months ago

The term "Dinosaur Fossils" comes from three Latin words: Deinos, meaning "great;" Sauros, meaning "lizard;" and Fossilis, meaning "dug up." Therefore, dinosaur fossil literally means "great lizard that was dug up." British anatomist Sir Richard Owen (1804-1892) coined the word "dinosaur" in 1841. Dinosaur Fossils: Early Discoveries A British fossil finder and ecclesiastic, William Buckland (1784-1856), discovered the first dinosaur fossil remains of our modern times. In 1819, Buckland discovered the Megalosaurus Bucklandii (Buckland's Giant Lizard) in England. It was given its name in 1824. Prior to this, Reverend Plot had found a h...

Warming Up to the Truth: The Real Story About Climate Change

· 5 months ago

by Sallie Baliunas, Ph.D. Heritage Lecture #758 August 22, 2002 The Climate Action Report, a periodic report to the United Nations, was issued in early June. A media frenzy claimed that this report somehow contained revelatory new science that changed the debate on global warming. The report has little new science. But since 1992, when America embarked on the Rio Treaty, a great deal of new science has come forward. The United States is a leader in studying the subject. The U.S. has invested some $45 billion in research funding on this question over the past 10 years. I wanted to update you on the latest science since 1992 and assure you ...

Discovered Fossils of Creatures Sealed in Volcanic Ash

A team of scientists used 3D imaging to reconstruct the anatomy of Cambrian trilobites that were buried under layers of volcanic ash.

· 5 months ago

Discovered Fossils of Creatures Sealed in Volcanic Ash

Scientists have revealed extraordinary images of the most anatomically complete specimens of Cambrian trilobites ever found. The pristine fossils, dating back between 541 million and 485 million years ago, were discovered in 2015 under layers of volcanic ash from the Cambrian Tatelt Formation in Morocco and published in the journal Science (https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl4540). This volcanic "burial" preserved the soft tissues of the extinct arthropods, revealing anatomical features never seen before. Because the trilobites were encased in hot ash and seawater, their bodies fossilized very rapidly as th...

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